Personal Factors of Referees in Football Influencing the Formation of Refereeing Styles
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.17309/tmfv.2026.1.18Keywords:
temperament types, stress resistance, coping strategies, emotional intelligence, authoritarian refereeing style, democratic refereeing style, liberal refereeing style, football refereesAbstract
Objectives. The study aimed to determine the psychological characteristics of football referees that influence the formation of their refereeing styles.
Materials and Methods. Twenty-five football referees from professional leagues in Ukraine (aged 25–40 years, with 7–17 years of refereeing experience) participated in the study. The sample included 12 referees from the Ukrainian Premier League, 6 from the First League of the Professional Football League (PFL), and 7 female referees. A battery of psychological diagnostic methods was used, including the Self-Assessment of Stress Resistance scale, Eysenck’s Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), Hall’s Emotional Intelligence Assessment, and Amirkhan’s Coping Strategy Indicator.
Results. The assessment of stress resistance revealed that female referees scored 10.2% higher than male referees (33.3 vs. 36.7 points, respectively). The study of coping strategies showed that subjects, overall, were characterized by an average level of Problem Focusing and Seeking Social Support, but a low level of Avoidance. In general, football referees exhibited a low level of Managing one’s emotions and Recognition of others’ emotions (median score: 6 points). The remaining indicators corresponded to the average level. Fifty-two percent (52.0%) of the subjects demonstrated a low level of emotional intelligence, while the remaining 48.0% displayed an average level.
Conclusions. The findings have established that, in general, football referees demonstrate an average level of stress resistance; however, this feature does not statistically significantly affect the choice of refereeing style. Statistically significant (p<0.050) correlations have been identified between referees’ coping strategies and their officiating styles, indicating that the coping strategies used by officials to manage stress have a direct impact on their approach to match management. In particular, referees who tend to actively engage in problem-solving and seek effective solutions are more likely to demonstrate an authoritarian refereeing style. Simultaneously, referees who tend to avoid problems are more likely to exhibit a liberal refereeing style. No statistical relationship was found between the democratic style and coping strategies.
Downloads
References
Gomes, A.R., Fontes, L., Rodrigues, M, & Dias, B. (2021). Burnout in referees: Relations with stress, cognitive appraisal, and emotions. International Journal of Psychology & Behavior Analysis, 7(177), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.15344/2455-3867/2021/177 DOI: https://doi.org/10.15344/2455-3867/2021/177
Wang, H., Zhang, C., Ji, Z., Li, X., & Wang, L. (2024). Faster, more accurate, more confident? An exploratory experiment on soccer referees’ yellow card decision-making. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1415170. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1415170 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1415170
Abdula, A., & Marulin, S. (2025). Evaluation of Factors Influencing Assistant Referee Decisions in Determining» Offside» in Football. Slobozhanskyi Herald of Science and Sport, 29(1), 82-95. https://doi.org/10.15391/snsv.2025-1.08 DOI: https://doi.org/10.15391/snsv.2025-1.08
Yıldız, Ö., & Yıldız, M. (2020). Values of football referees. Turkish Journal of Sport and Exercise, 22(2), 161-170. https://doi.org/10.15314/tsed.759874
Pizzera, A., Laborde, S., Lahey, J., & Wahl, P. (2022). Influence of physical and psychological stress on decision-making performance of soccer referees. Journal of sports sciences, 40(18), 2037-2046. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2022.2127516 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2022.2127516
Popovych, I., Kurova, A., Koval, I., Kazibekova, V., Maksymov, M., & Huzar, V. (2022). Interdependence of emotionality, anxiety, aggressiveness and subjective control in handball referees before the beginning of a game: a comparative analysis. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 22(3), 680-689. https://doi.org/10.7752/jpes.2022.03085 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7752/jpes.2022.03085
Slack, L.A., Butt, J., Maynard, I.W., & Olusoga, P. (2014). Understanding mental toughness in elite football officiating: Perceptions of English Premier League referees. Sport & Exercise Psychology Review, 10(1), 4-24. DOI: https://doi.org/10.53841/bpssepr.2014.10.1.4
Pryshchak, M. D., & Lesko, O. Y. (2016). Psychology of management in organizations: a textbook [2nd ed., revised and supplemented]. Vinnytsia: VNTU.
Bernal, J. C., Nix, C., & Boatwright, D. (2012). Sport officials’ longevity: Motivation and passion for the sport. International Journal of Sport Management, Recreation & Tourism, 10, 28–39. https://doi.org/10.5199/ijsmart-1791-874X-10b DOI: https://doi.org/10.5199/ijsmart-1791-874X-10b
Warner, S., Tingle, J. K., & Kellett, P. (2013). Officiating attrition: The experiences of former referees via a sport development lens. Journal of Sport Management, 27(4), 316-328. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.27.4.316 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.27.4.316
Korolchuk, M. S. (2018). Psychology of professional self-determination of the individual: monograph. Kyiv.
Margiyan, M. E., Nuraini, S., & Hernawan. (2022). The effect of referee knowledge, leadership style and confidence on the performance of hockey referee. Gladi: Jurnal Ilmu Keolahragaan, 13(02), 161-177. https://doi.org/10.21009/GJIK.125.04 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21009/GJIK.125.04
Hamamcioglu, U., & Acar, M. F. (2024). Investigation of the Self-Confidence and Self-Efficiency Levels of Football Referees. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology-TOJET, 23(2), 84-92.
Shiloh, S., Koren, S., & Zakay, D. (2001). Individual differences in compensatory decision-making style and need for closure as correlates of subjective decision complexity and difficulty. Personality and Individual Differences, 30(4), 699–710. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00073-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00073-8
Mazaraki, A.A., Moshok, G.E., Gomba, L.A., etc. (2007). Management: theory and practice: textbook. Kyiv: Ataka.
Voronova, V., Khmelnitska, I., Kostyukevich, V., & Petrovska, T. (2021). Psychological Components of a Football Coach Personality. Sport Mont, 19, 137-141. https://doi.org/10.26773/smj.210923 DOI: https://doi.org/10.26773/smj.210923
Voronova, V., Shynkaruk, O., Kovalchuk, V., & Marchenko, G. (2024). Ascertaining the Peculiarities of Athletes’ Adaptation Course to Post-Sports Life. Physical Education Theory and Methodology, 24(4), 579–585. https://doi.org/10.17309/tmfv.2024.4.09 DOI: https://doi.org/10.17309/tmfv.2024.4.09
Petrovska, T., Sova, V., Voronova, V., Khmelnitska, I., Borysova, O., & Kurdybakha, O. (2022). Features of self-esteem and level of ambition in athletes of different qualifications. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 22(3), 593-599. https://doi.org/10.7752/jpes.2022.03074 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7752/jpes.2022.03074
Vozniuk, T., Shchepotina, N., Koliadych, Y., Lazarenko, N., Ihnatova, O., Baiurko, N., Kostiukevych, V., Svirshchuk, N., Perepelytsia, M., & Chyzhevska, N. (2021). Methods of Primary Selection of Young Football Players. Sport Mont, 19, 9-15. https://doi.org/10.26773/smj.210902 DOI: https://doi.org/10.26773/smj.210902
Dohmen, T. J. (2008). The influence of social forces: Evidence from the behavior of football referees. Economic inquiry, 46(3), 411-424. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1465-7295.2007.00112.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1465-7295.2007.00112.x
Dawson, P., & Dobson, S. (2010). The influence of social pressure and nationality on individual decisions: Evidence from the behaviour of referees. Journal of Economic Psychology, 31(2), 181-191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2009.06.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2009.06.001
Moriconi, M., & De Cima, C. (2021). Why some football referees engage in match-fixing? A sociological explanation of the influence of social structures. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 13(4), 545-563. https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2021.1928731 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2021.1928731
Loghmani, M., Cuskelly, G., & Webb, T. (2021). Examining the career dynamics of elite football referees: A unique identification profile. Sport Management Review, 24(3), 517-542. https://doi.org/10.1080/14413523.2021.1879556 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14413523.2021.1879556
Webb, T., O’Gorman, J., & Markham, L. (2023). Striving for excellence: Talent identification and development in English football refereeing. European Sport Management Quarterly, 23(2), 351-369. https://doi.org/10.1080/16184742.2020.1864748 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/16184742.2020.1864748
Eysenck, H. J., & Eysenck, S. B. G. (1975). Manual of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (junior & adult). Hodder and Stoughton Educational. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/t05462-000
Maksymenko, S.D., Karamushka, L.M., & Zaychikova, T.V. (ed.). (2004). The syndrome of «professional burnout» and the professional career of employees of educational organizations: gender aspects. K.: Millennium.
Lazarus, R.S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. N.Y.
Voronova, V., & Romaniuk, A. (2024). Professionally important personality traits of a football referee. Current Problems of Psychological and Pedagogical Support and Development of Subjects of Sports Activity: VII All-Ukrainian Scientific Electronic Conference. Kyiv, 24-26.
Amirkhan, J. H. (1990). A factor analytically derived measure of coping: The Coping Strategy Indicator. Journal of personality and social psychology, 59(5), 1066-1074. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.59.5.1066
Hall, C. (2006). Emotional intelligence and experiential learning. Human Learning. Routledge, 139-156. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203463321_chapter_10
Byshevets, N., Denysova, L., Shynkaruk, O., Serhiyenko, K., Usychenko, V., Stepanenko, O., & Syvash, I. (2019). Using the methods of mathematical statistics in sports and educational research. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 19(3), 1030-1034. https://www.doi.org/10.7752/jpes.2019.s3148
Bai, Z., & Bai, X. (2021). Sports big data: management, analysis, applications, and challenges. Complexity, 2021(1), 6676297. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6676297 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6676297
Jones, I. (2022). Research methods for sports studies. Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003195467
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Valentyna Voronova, Anastasiya Romanyuk, Natalia Shchepotina, Viktor Kostiukevych, Viktoriia Kovalchuk, Iryna Kulchytska, Olga Bekas
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
