The Influence of Chronotype on Strength Variables in Female University Students at different times of day: A Cross-Sectional Study
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.17309/tmfv.2025.5.08Keywords:
chronotype, morningness – eveningness, maximum strength, explosive power, hand muscle strengthAbstract
Background. Chronotype influences physical performance through circadian rhythms that vary across the day. Strength and power often peak in the evening, suggesting timing impacts training outcomes. This study explores these effects in female university students, a group which is underrepresented in chronobiological research.
Objectives. This study aimed to examine how chronotype influences strength performance in female university students at different times of day. Specifically, it compared maximal strength, explosive power, and hand muscle strength between morning-type and evening-type individuals to identify optimal training or performance times based on chronobiological preference.
Materials and methods. The Horne and Ostberg Morningness–Eveningness Questionnaire was used to classify 56 Indian female university students (mean age = 22.2 years; weight = 56 ± 4.31 kg; height = 158 ± 5 cm; BMI = 21 ± 1.5 kg/m²). Strength performance was assessed using three measures: one-repetition maximum (1RM) for maximal strength; countermovement jump (CMJ) for explosive power; and handgrip dynamometry for muscle strength. Testing was conducted under standardized conditions at each participant’s chronotype-aligned time (morning or evening). Independent samples t-tests were used for analysis, with the Shapiro–Wilk and Levene’s tests confirming the assumptions of normality and homogeneity.
Results. It was observed that the evening-type individuals expressed much better scores on all variables of being tested than morning types. The evening group produced greater values in 1RM squat (78.3 ± 2.63 kg vs. 72.1 ± 3.11 kg; t (54) = -8.08, p < .001, d = 2.16), CMJ (30.1 ± 2.32 cm vs. 26.1 ± 2.32 cm; t (54) = -6.46, p < .001, d = 1.
Conclusions. The findings of this study indicate that evening-type female university students have enhanced strength performance during evening hours, underscoring the need to consider chronotype when planning training and performance assessments in female athletes.
Downloads
References
Das, S.C., Singh, S., & Chakraborty, S. (2024). Chronotype and Athletic Performance in Different Time of Day. ShodhKosh: Journal of Visual and Performing Arts, 5(6). https://doi.org/10.29121/shodhkosh.v5.i6.2024.3419 DOI: https://doi.org/10.29121/shodhkosh.v5.i6.2024.3419
Roenneberg, T., Pilz, L.K., Zerbini, G., & Winnebeck, E.C. (2019). Chronotype and social jetlag: A (self-) critical review. Biology, 8(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/biology8030054 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/biology8030054
Adan, A., Archer, S.N., Hidalgo, M.P., Di Milia, L., Natale, V., & Randler, C. (2012). Circadian typology: A comprehensive review. Chronobiology International, 29(9), 1153-1175. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3109/07420528.2012.719971
Merrow, M., & Roenneberg, T. (2003). The network of time: Understanding the molecular circadian system. Current Biology, 13(5), R198-R207. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00124-6
Adan, A., Archer, S. N., Hidalgo, M. P., Di Milia, L., Natale, V., & Randler, C. (2012). Circadian typology: A comprehensive review. Chronobiology International, 29(9), 1153-1175. https://doi.org/10.3109/07420528.2012.719971 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3109/07420528.2012.719971
Chtourou, H., & Souissi, N. (2012). The Effect of Training at a Specific Time of Day: A Review. www.nsca.com DOI: https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e31825770a7
Vitale, J.A., & Weydahl, A. (2017). Chronotype, Physical Activity, and Sport Performance: A Systematic Review. Sports Medicine, 47(9), 1859-1868. Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-017-0741-z DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-017-0741-z
Facer-Childs, E., & Brandstaetter, R. (2015). The impact of circadian phenotype and time since awakening on diurnal performance in athletes. Current Biology, 25(4), 518-522. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2014.12.036 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2014.12.036
Garber, C. E., Blissmer, B., Deschenes, M. R., Franklin, B. A., Lamonte, M. J., Lee, I.-M., Nieman, D. C., & Swain, D. P. (2011). Quantity and Quality of Exercise for Developing and Maintaining Cardiorespiratory, Musculoskeletal, and Neuromotor Fitness in Apparently Healthy Adults: Guidance for Prescribing Exercise. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 43(7), 1334-1359. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e318213fefb DOI: https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e318213fefb
Cormie, P., McGuigan, M.R., & Newton, R.U. (2011). Developing maximal neuromuscular power: Part 1 - Biological basis of maximal power production. Sports Medicine, 41(1). https://doi.org/10.2165/11537690-000000000-00000 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/11537690-000000000-00000
Sale, D.G. (1988). Neural adaptation to resistance training. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 20(5). https://doi.org/10.1249/00005768-198810001-00009 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1249/00005768-198810001-00009
Kraemer, W.J., & Ratamess, N.A. (2004). Fundamentals of resistance training: Progression and exercise prescription. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 36(4), 674-688. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1249/01.MSS.0000121945.36635.61
Miller, A.E. J., MacDougall, J.D., Tarnopolsky, M.A., & Sale, D.G. (1993). Gender differences in strength and muscle fiber characteristics. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 66(3). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00235103 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00235103
İlbak, İ., Eken, Ö., Stojanović, S., Joksimović, M., Pavlović, R., & Radulović, N. (2024). Investigation of maximal strength performance in terms of training time routine. Pedagogy of Physical Culture and Sports, 28(1), 26-32. https://doi.org/10.15561/26649837.2024.0103 DOI: https://doi.org/10.15561/26649837.2024.0103
Izquierdo, M., Ibañez, J., González-Badillo, J.J., & Gorostiaga, E.M. (2002). Effects of creatine supplementation on muscle power, endurance, and sprint performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 34(2), 332–343. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-200202000-00023 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-200202000-00023
Jurado-Castro, J. M., Campos-Pérez, J., Vilches-Redondo, M. Á., Mata, F., Navarrete-Pérez, A., & Ranchal-Sanchez, A. (2022). Morning versus evening intake of creatine in elite female handball players. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(1). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19010393 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19010393
Souissi, W., Hammouda, O., Ammar, A., Ayachi, M., Bardiaa, Y., Daoud, O., Hassen, I. Ben, Souissi, M., & Driss, T. (2022). Higher evening metabolic responses contribute to diurnal variation of self-paced cycling performance. Biology of Sport, 39(1). https://doi.org/10.5114/biolsport.2021.102930 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5114/biolsport.2021.102930
Thun, E., Bjorvatn, B., Flo, E., Harris, A., & Pallesen, S. (2015). Sleep, circadian rhythms, and athletic performance. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2014.11.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2014.11.003
Fernandes, A.L., Lopes-Silva, J.P., Bertuzzi, R., Casarini, D.E., Arita, D.Y., Bishop, D.J., & Lima-Silva, A.E. (2014). Effect of time of day on performance, hormonal and metabolic response during a 1000-M cycling time trial. PLoS ONE, 9(10). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0109954 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0109954
Küüsmaa, M., Schumann, M., Sedliak, M., Kraemer, W. J., Newton, R. U., Malinen, J. P., Nyman, K., Häkkinen, A., & Häkkinen, K. (2016). Effects of morning versus evening combined strength and endurance training on physical performance, muscle hypertrophy, and serum hormone concentrations. Applied Physiology, Nutrition and Metabolism, 41(12). https://doi.org/10.1139/apnm-2016-0271 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1139/apnm-2016-0271
De Hoyo, M., Gonzalo-Skok, O., Sanudo, B., Carrascal, C., Plaza-Armas, J. R., Camacho-Candil, F., & Otero-Esquina, C. (2016). Comparative effects of in-season full-back squat, resisted sprint training, and plyometric training on explosive performance in U-19 elite soccer players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 30(2). https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000001094 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000001094
Heishman, A. D., Curtis, M. A., Saliba, E. N., Hornett, R. J., Malin, S. K., & Weltman, A. L. (2017). Comparing performance during morning vs. afternoon training sessions in intercollegiate basketball players. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 31(6), 1557-1562. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000001882
Zelenović, M., Kontro, T., Čaušević, D., Bjelica, B., Aksović, N., & Milanović, Z. (2024). Warm-up is an efficient strategy to prevent diurnal variation of short-term maximal performance in young basketball players. Chronobiology International, 41(3). https://doi.org/10.1080/07420528.2024.2313646 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07420528.2024.2313646
López-Samanes, Á., Moreno-Pérez, D., Maté-Muñoz, J. L., Domínguez, R., Pallarés, J. G., Mora-Rodriguez, R., & Ortega, J. F. (2017). Circadian rhythm effect on physical tennis performance in trained male players. Journal of Sports Sciences, 35(21). https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2016.1258481 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2016.1258481
Harrison, P.W., James, L.P., Jenkins, D.G., McGuigan, M.R., Holmberg, P.M., & Kelly, V.G. (2024). The Effects of Low-Load Squat Jump and Maximal Isometric Priming Exercise on Muscular Performance and Perceptual State. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 38(1). https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000004524 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000004524
Robles-González, L., Ramírez Maldonado, M., Alcalá-Escamilla, J. C., Jurado-Fasoli, L., Miras-Moreno, S., Soriano, M. A., García-Ramos, A., Ruiz, J. R., & Amaro-Gahete, F. J. (2023). Caffeine ingestion attenuates diurnal variation of lower-body ballistic performance in resistance-trained women. European Journal of Sport Science, 23(3). https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2022.2038274 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2022.2038274
Pavlović, L., Stojiljković, N., Aksović, N., Stojanović, E., Valdevit, Z., Scanlan, A. T., & Milanović, Z. (2018). Diurnal Variations in Physical Performance: Are There Morning-to-Evening Differences in Elite Male Handball Players? Journal of Human Kinetics, 63(1). https://doi.org/10.2478/hukin-2018-0012 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/hukin-2018-0012
Martin-López, J., Pérez-López, A., Varillas-Delgado, D., & López-Samanes, Á. (2024). Influence of time-of-day on neuromuscular performance in team sport athletes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. In Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, 6. Frontiers Media SA. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2024.1466050 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2024.1466050
Patel, A., Adams, J., & Davey, C. (2004). Diurnal Variation in Grip Strength and Hand Dexterity in Healthy Adults. The British Journal of Hand Therapy, 9(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/175899830400900402 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/175899830400900402
Reinberg, A.E., Bicakova-Rocher, A., Gorceix, A., Ashkenazi, I.E., & Smolensky, M.H. (1994). Placebo effect on the circadian rhythm period τ of temperature and hand-grip strength rhythms: Interindividual and gender-related difference. Chronobiology International, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.3109/07420529409057230 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3109/07420529409057230
Kons, R., Santos, G., Borges, M. L. B., Cintra de Sousa, P. H., & Detanico, D. (2025). Time-of-day effects on physical performance and perceptual responses in Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu athletes. Chronobiology international, 42(1), 147-154. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07420528.2025.2453235
Küüsmaa, M., Schumann, M., Sedliak, M., Kraemer, W. J., Newton, R. U., Malinen, J. P., Nyman, K., Häkkinen, A., & Häkkinen, K. (2016). Effects of morning versus evening combined strength and endurance training on physical performance, muscle hypertrophy, and serum hormone concentrations. Applied Physiology, Nutrition and Metabolism, 41(12). https://doi.org/10.1139/apnm-2016-0271 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1139/apnm-2016-0271
Duan, C., Kim, Y., & Park, Y. (2024). Effects of speed-agility-quickness training and sprint interval training on physiological and physical performance, and sports enjoyment in young soccer players. Journal of Men’s Health, 20(7), 59-69. https://doi.org/10.22514/jomh.2024.110 DOI: https://doi.org/10.22514/jomh.2024.110
Teo, W., Newton, M.J., & Mcguigan, M.R. (2011). Circadian rhythms in exercise performance: Implications for hormonal and muscular adaptation. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 10.
Reilly, T., Atkinson, G., Edwards, B., Waterhouse, J., Farrelly, K., & Fairhurst, E. (2007). Diurnal variation in temperature, mental and physical performance, and tasks specifically related to football (soccer). Chronobiology International, 24(3). https://doi.org/10.1080/07420520701420709 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07420520701420709
Cherif, M., Said, M.A., Ben Chaifa, M., & Kotb, A.A. H. (2022). Position-dependent morning-to-evensing variability in physical performances in elite male handball players. Biological Rhythm Research, 53(10), 1496-1508. https://doi.org/10.1080/09291016.2021.1967574 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09291016.2021.1967574
Klaus-Karwisch, S., Merkle, A., Werner, S., Ruf, L., Woll, A., Härtel, S., & Altmann, S. (2023). Sprint and jump performances of female athletes are enhanced in the evening but not associated with individual chronotype. Chronobiology International, 40(10). https://doi.org/10.1080/07420528.2023.2267659 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07420528.2023.2267659
Saha, G. C., Orhan, B. E., Hazra, S., Biswas, S., Karak, P. K., Mondal, S., ... & Gaur, M. P. (2025). Effect of diurnal variations on cognitive and physical performance among female athletes. Retos: nuevas tendencias en educación física, deporte y recreación, (68), 874-888. https://doi.org/10.47197/retos.v DOI: https://doi.org/10.47197/retos.v68.113742
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Gopal Chandra Saha, Prem Kumar Karak, Smriti Mondal, Chandan Shaw, Subhashis Biswas, Tarak Nath Pramanik, Mahendra Pratap Gaur, Madhu Gaur, Samaresh Jana
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
