The Effect of Plyometric Training Versus Combined Plyometric and Core Training on Autonomic Regulation and Muscle Oxygenation During Incremental Resistance Exercise in Collegiate Athletes
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.17309/tmfv.2026.3.17Keywords:
plyometric training, core stability, heart rate variability, muscle oxygenation, near-infrared spectroscopy, resistance exercise, autonomic regulationAbstract
Objectives. This study aimed to compare the effects of plyometric training (PT) and combined plyometric plus core training (PT+CT) on autonomic nervous system regulation and local muscle oxygenation during resistance exercise in collegiate athletes. Specifically, changes in heart rate variability (HRV), muscle oxygen saturation (SmO₂), and performance parameters were examined following a 10-week intervention.
Materials and Methods. A three-arm, parallel-group, assessor-blinded randomized controlled trial was conducted with 45 collegiate athletes (aged 19–24 years) from volleyball, soccer, and basketball backgrounds. Participants were randomly assigned to PT (n = 15), PT+CT (n = 15), or a control group (CON; n = 15). The PT group performed progressive plyometric exercises, while the PT+CT group completed identical plyometric training supplemented with structured core exercises, three sessions per week for 10 weeks. The CON group continued sport-specific training only. Primary outcomes included resting and post-exercise HRV indices (RMSSD, SDNN, HF power, LF/HF ratio) and SmO₂ measured via near-infrared spectroscopy during incremental back squat at 60%, 70%, and 80% of 1-RM. Secondary outcomes included maximal strength, jump performance, blood lactate, and perceived exertion.
Results. Forty-two participants completed the study. Both PT and PT+CT groups showed significantly greater improvements in 1-RM back squat compared with CON (P < .001). The PT+CT group demonstrated superior increases in resting RMSSD compared with PT (P = .008) and CON (P < .001). During high-intensity exercise (80% 1-RM), SmO₂ was significantly higher in PT+CT than in both PT and CON (P ≤ .01). Post-exercise HF power was better preserved in PT+CT than CON (P = .003). Additionally, countermovement jump performance improved more in PT+CT than PT (P = .04) and CON (P < .001), with no significant differences observed in blood lactate or RPE.
Conclusions. The findings confirm that combined plyometric and core training elicits superior improvements in autonomic regulation and muscle oxygenation compared to plyometric training alone, supporting its integration into resistance-based conditioning programs for enhanced physiological and performance adaptations.
Downloads
References
Zhang, F., Liu, Y., Liu, J., Yeremenko, O., & Shi, L. (2026). The effects of plyometric training on physical fitness in adolescent team sports: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Physiology, 17, 1760239. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2026.1760239 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2026.1760239
Markovic, G., & Mikulic, P. (2010). Neuro-musculoskeletal and performance adaptations to lower-extremity plyometric training. Sports Medicine (Auckland, N.Z.), 40(10), 859–895. https://doi.org/10.2165/11318370-000000000-00000 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/11318370-000000000-00000
Moran, J., Vali, N., Sand, A., Beato, M., Hammami, R., Ramirez-Campillo, R., Chaabene, H., & Sandercock, G. (2024). Effect of vertical, horizontal, and combined plyometric training on jump, sprint and change of direction performance in male soccer players. PLOS ONE, 19(5), e0295786. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0295786 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0295786
Ramirez-Campillo, R., Álvarez, C., García-Hermoso, A., Ramírez-Vélez, R., Gentil, P., Asadi, A., Chaabene, H., Moran, J., Meylan, C., García-de-Alcaraz, A., Sanchez-Sanchez, J., Nakamura, F. Y., Granacher, U., Kraemer, W., & Izquierdo, M. (2018). Methodological Characteristics and Future Directions for Plyometric Jump Training Research: A Scoping Review. Sports Medicine, 48(5), 1059–1081. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-018-0870-z DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-018-0870-z
Sun, J., Sun, J., Shaharudin, S., & Zhang, Q. (2025). Effects of plyometrics training on lower limb strength, power, agility, and body composition in athletically trained adults: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Scientific Reports, 15(1), 34146. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-10652-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-10652-4
Cormie, P., McGuigan, M. R., & Newton, R. U. (2011). Developing Maximal Neuromuscular Power: Part 2 – Training Considerations for Improving Maximal Power Production. Sports Medicine, 41(2), 125–146. https://doi.org/10.2165/11538500-000000000-00000 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/11538500-000000000-00000
Suchomel, T. J., Nimphius, S., & Stone, M. H. (2016). The Importance of Muscular Strength in Athletic Performance. Sports Medicine, 46(10), 1419–1449. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-016-0486-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-016-0486-0
Kibler, W. B., Press, J., & Sciascia, A. (2006). The role of core stability in athletic function. Sports Medicine (Auckland, N.Z.), 36(3), 189–198. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200636030-00001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200636030-00001
Hibbs, A. E., Thompson, K. G., French, D., Wrigley, A., & Spears, I. (2008). Optimizing Performance by Improving Core Stability and Core Strength. Sports Medicine, 38(12), 995–1008. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200838120-00004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200838120-00004
Reed, C. A., Ford, K. R., Myer, G. D., & Hewett, T. E. (2012). The Effects of Isolated and Integrated ‘Core Stability’ Training on Athletic Performance Measures: A Systematic Review. Sports Medicine, 42(8), 697–706. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03262289 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03262289
Yu, T., Xu, Y., Zhang, Z., Sun, Y., Zhong, J., & Ding, C. (2025). The impact of core training on overall athletic performance in different sports: A comprehensive meta-analysis. BMC Sports Science, Medicine & Rehabilitation, 17(1), 112. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13102-025-01159-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13102-025-01159-6
Cabrejas, C., Solana-Tramunt, M., Morales, J., Nieto, A., Bofill, A., Carballeira, E., & Pierantozzi, E. (2023). The Effects of an Eight-Week Integrated Functional Core and Plyometric Training Program on Young Rhythmic Gymnasts’ Explosive Strength. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(2), 1041. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20021041 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20021041
Prieske, O., Muehlbauer, T., & Granacher, U. (2016). The Role of Trunk Muscle Strength for Physical Fitness and Athletic Performance in Trained Individuals: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Sports Medicine, 46(3), 401–419. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-015-0426-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-015-0426-4
Benjamim, C. J. R., Monteiro, L. R. L., Pontes, Y. M. D. M., Silva, A. A. M. D., Souza, T. K. M. D., Valenti, V. E., Garner, D. M., & Cavalcante, T. C. F. (2021). Caffeine slows heart rate autonomic recovery following strength exercise in healthy subjects. Revista Portuguesa de Cardiologia, 40(6), 399–406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.repc.2020.07.015 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.repc.2020.07.015
Leng, B., Huang, H., & Zhang, C. (2024). Effects of coffee intake on skeletal muscle microvascular reactivity at rest and oxygen extraction during exercise: A randomized cross-over trial. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 21(1), 2409673. https://doi.org/10.1080/15502783.2024.2409673 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15502783.2024.2409673
Ruiz-Moreno, C., Gutiérrez-Hellín, J., Lara, B., & Del Coso, J. (2022). Effect of caffeine on muscle oxygen saturation during short-term all-out exercise: A double-blind randomized crossover study. European Journal of Nutrition, 61(6), 3109–3117. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-022-02875-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-022-02875-2
Addleman, J. S., Lackey, N. S., DeBlauw, J. A., & Hajduczok, A. G. (2024). Heart Rate Variability Applications in Strength and Conditioning: A Narrative Review. Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology, 9(2), 93. https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk9020093 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk9020093
Buchheit, M. (2014). Monitoring training status with HR measures: Do all roads lead to Rome? Frontiers in Physiology, 5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2014.00073 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2014.00073
Zhang, W., Bi, S., & Luo, L. (2025). The impact of long-term exercise intervention on heart rate variability indices: A systematic meta-analysis. Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine, 12, 1364905. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcvm.2025.1364905 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fcvm.2025.1364905
Yang, F., Ma, Y., Liang, S., Shi, Y., & Wang, C. (2024). Effect of Exercise Modality on Heart Rate Variability in Adults: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis. Reviews in Cardiovascular Medicine, 25(1), 9. https://doi.org/10.31083/j.rcm2501009 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31083/j.rcm2501009
Boushel, R., & Piantadosi, C. A. (2000). Near‐infrared spectroscopy for monitoring muscle oxygenation. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 168(4), 615–622. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-201x.2000.00713.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-201x.2000.00713.x
Tuesta, M., Yáñez-Sepúlveda, R., Verdugo-Marchese, H., Mateluna, C., & Alvear-Ordenes, I. (2022). Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Used to Assess Physiological Muscle Adaptations in Exercise Clinical Trials: A Systematic Review. Biology, 11(7), 1073. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology11071073 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/biology11071073
Perrey, S., Quaresima, V., & Ferrari, M. (2024). Muscle Oximetry in Sports Science: An Updated Systematic Review. Sports Medicine, 54(4), 975–996. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-023-01987-x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-023-01987-x
Baker, J. S., McCormick, M. C., & Robergs, R. A. (2010). Interaction among Skeletal Muscle Metabolic Energy Systems during Intense Exercise. Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism, 2010, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1155/2010/905612 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2010/905612
Pelka, E. Z., Davis, B. R., & McDaniel, J. (2024). Sourcebook update: Using near-infrared spectroscopy to assess skeletal muscle oxygen uptake. Advances in Physiology Education, 48(3), 566–572. https://doi.org/10.1152/advan.00047.2024 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1152/advan.00047.2024
World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki: Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects. (2013). JAMA, 310(20), 2191. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.281053 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.281053
Shapiro, S. S., & Wilk, M. B. (1965). An analysis of variance test for normality (complete samples). Biometrika, 52(3–4), 591–611. https://doi.org/10.1093/biomet/52.3-4.591 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/biomet/52.3-4.591
Field, A. (2013). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics: And sex and drugs and rock “n” roll (4th edition). Sage.
Armstrong, R. A. (2014). When to use the Bonferroni correction. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics, 34(5), 502–508. https://doi.org/10.1111/opo.12131 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/opo.12131
Girden, E. R. (1992). ANOVA: Repeated measures. Sage Publications. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412983419
Kruskal, W. H., & Wallis, W. A. (1952). Use of Ranks in One-Criterion Variance Analysis. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 47(260), 583–621. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1952.10483441 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1952.10483441
Cohen, J. (2013). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203771587 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203771587
Kassambara, A. (2023). Rstatix: Pipe-Friendly Framework for Basic Statistical Tests. R package version 0.7.2. [Computer software]. https://rpkgs.datanovia.com/rstatix/
Nobrega, A. C. L., O’Leary, D., Silva, B. M., Marongiu, E., Piepoli, M. F., & Crisafulli, A. (2014). Neural Regulation of Cardiovascular Response to Exercise: Role of Central Command and Peripheral Afferents. BioMed Research International, 2014, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/478965 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/478965
Shaffer, F., & Ginsberg, J. P. (2017). An Overview of Heart Rate Variability Metrics and Norms. Frontiers in Public Health, 5, 258. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2017.00258 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2017.00258
Salem, A., Ammar, A., Kerkeni, M., Boujelbane, M., Uyar, A. M., Köbel, L. M., Selvaraj, S., Zare, R., Heinrich, K. M., Jahrami, H., Tounsi, S., Grosso, G., Zmijewski, P., Schöllhorn, W., Trabelsi, K., & Chtourou, H. (2025). Acute effects of beetroot juice vs. Creatine supplementation on maximal strength, autonomic regulation, and muscle oxygenation during incremental resistance exercise. Biology of Sport, 42(4), 241–259. https://doi.org/10.5114/biolsport.2025.151658 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5114/biolsport.2025.151658
Jones, A. M., Thompson, C., Wylie, L. J., & Vanhatalo, A. (2018). Dietary Nitrate and Physical Performance. Annual Review of Nutrition, 38(1), 303–328. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-nutr-082117-051622 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-nutr-082117-051622
Michael, S., Graham, K. S., & Davis, G. M. (2017). Cardiac Autonomic Responses during Exercise and Post-exercise Recovery Using Heart Rate Variability and Systolic Time Intervals—A Review. Frontiers in Physiology, 8, 301. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2017.00301 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2017.00301
Staniszewski, M., Tkaczyk, J., Kęska, A., Zybko, P., & Mróz, A. (2024). Effect of rest duration between sets on fatigue and recovery after short intense plyometric exercise. Scientific Reports, 14(1), 15080. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-66146-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-66146-2
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Dhanasekaran Chandrasekaran, Sundar Raj Narsing Raj, Vedan Shatish Raj Kannan Baba, Kiran Kumar Nagaraj, Uma Palanisamy, Farjana Akter Boby, Yuni Astuti, Josyula Tejaswi
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
